№1. Economic Goods and Services.
    People begin to learn about economics when they are still very young. At first they find that they want a lot of but they couldn't bye everything. There is a big gap between what they want and what they can have.
    Than they discover that there are thousands of things they or their parents could buy. Gradually, they settle into two major economic roles: consumer and producer.
    Consumer buy goods and services for personal use, not for resale. Consumer goods are products, such as food, clothing, and cars, that satisfy people's economic needs or wants. Some consumer goods, such as food, do not last a long time. It's perishable goods. Other goods, such as cars or VCRs, last longer. Services are actions , such as haircutting, cleaning or teaching. Services are used up at the time they are provided.
    A producer makes the goods or provides the services that consumers use.
    In order to produce something, a person must first have right resources. Resources are the materials from which goods and services are made. There are three kinds of resources: human (people), natural (raw materials), and capital resources (capital, or the money or property). No economy has an unlimited supply of resources. In other words , there is a scarcity of resources.
    The basic economic questions individuals and nations face are: What goods and services will be produced? How will they be produced ? Who will get them ? How much will be produced for now and how much for the future? The answers to the questions depend on a country's human, natural, and capital resources. Each country will answer 4 questions in a different way.
    №2. Opportunity costs. Tradeoffs.
    All production involves a cost. This cost is not counted simply in terms of money but also in terms of resources used. In building a bridge, for example, the real costs of the bridge are the human, capital, and natural resources it consumes. To build a bridge requires the labour of many people, including engineers and construction workers. The capital resources these people use include a variety of tools and machines. Building a bridge also requires natural resources.
    Since resources are limited and human wants are unlimited, people and societies must make choices about what they want most. Each choice involves costs. The value of time, money, goods and services given up in making a choice is called opportunity cost.
    When people make a choice between two possible uses of their resources, they are making a tradeoff between them.
    Then, society will understand the true costs of making one decision rather than another, and can make the decision that best fits its values and goals.
    How can the concepts of opportunity costs and tradeoffs be used to help explain how the economy works? One way is to construct a simple plan of the economy called an economic model. The simple plan helps economists to analyse economic problems, seek solutions, and make comparisons between the economic model and the real world.
    One of the most important choices a society makes is between producing capital goods and producing consumer goods. If a nation increases its production of consumer goods, its people will live better lives today. However, if a nation increases its production of capital goods, its people may live better in the future.
    Since every economic decision requires a choice, economics is a study of tradeoffs. When you analyse each side of a tradeoff, you can make better decisions.
    №11. Pricing policies.
    There are two types of pricing policies: to concern price emphasis and to emphasize low prices. The price emphasis charge appropriate prices, it encourages sales, but the low prices don't give extra services (some people are interested in low prices and forget about extra services). The price determines the number of sales. A good example of price emphasis is loss leader pricing. It means that you chose one item and sell it at a very low price. The consumer buys it and decides to buy something else, because he gets some extra cash. There is also off-even pricing: it produces a favorable psychological effect (79,99$).
    And now something about de-emphasis: it concerns high quality expensive items. Consumers don't call attention to the price at all.
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    №3. Utility and prices.
    Commodities of different kinds satisfy our wants in different ways. For example: food, car, medicine, books satisfy very different wants. This characteristic of satisfying a want is known in economics as "utility". Utility and usefulness are different things. For example: a submarine may or may not be useful in time of peace, but it satisfy a want. Many nations want submarine. Economists say that utility is "the relationship between a consumer and a commodity".
    Utility varies between different people and different nations. For example: somebody can be a vegetarian and he will be rate the utility of vegetable very highly, while somebody who eats meat can rate the utility of meat very highly. And about nations: mountain-republic like Switzerland has little interest in submarines while maritime nations rate then very highly.
    Utility varies is also in relation of time. ............